The Congress System Challenged and Restored, and the Emergency — 1964 to 1977

Between Nehru’s death in 1964 and the elections of 1977, Indian democracy went through its most turbulent years. The Congress lost power in several states in 1967, split in 1969, and was restored to dominance under Indira Gandhi in 1971 — but on a different basis. Then came economic crisis, mass movements, a confrontation with the judiciary and, in June 1975, the declaration of a national Emergency, which lasted until 1977, when the Congress was voted out at the centre for the first time. This chapter tells both halves of the story and keeps them in order, because the paper asks chronology, the meaning of terms such as Syndicate and Aya Ram, Gaya Ram, and the constitutional lessons of the Emergency.

Succession and the "Political Earthquake" of 1967

Nehru died in May 1964. Many observers doubted that the transition would be smooth, but Lal Bahadur Shastri was chosen unanimously and became Prime Minister. His tenure saw the war with Pakistan in 1965 and a severe food shortage; his slogan "Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan" captured both. He died suddenly at Tashkent in January 1966, and Indira Gandhi became Prime Minister after a contest among Congress MPs in which she defeated Morarji Desai. The senior party leaders who had backed her — a group of powerful organisational bosses known as the Syndicate, including K. Kamaraj, S.K. Patil, S. Nijalingappa, N. Sanjeeva Reddy and Atulya Ghosh — expected her to depend on their advice.

The fourth general election of 1967 took place amid economic difficulty — drought, the devaluation of the rupee, rising prices and protests. The Congress kept a narrow majority in the Lok Sabha, but it lost power in several states across the country, and the result was called a "political earthquake". The socialist leader Ram Manohar Lohia had argued for non-Congressism: that opposition parties should come together to end the Congress monopoly. In many states they formed coalition governments of parties with very different ideologies, known as Samyukt Vidhayak Dal (SVD) governments. In Madras the DMK came to power on its own. The period also saw frequent defections — legislators changing parties for office — captured in the phrase "Aya Ram, Gaya Ram", which came from a Haryana legislator, Gaya Lal, who changed his party three times within a fortnight in 1967.

The Split of 1969 and the Restoration of 1971

Indira Gandhi soon asserted herself against the Syndicate. The Congress adopted a Ten Point Programme in 1967 that included social control of banks, nationalisation of general insurance, ceilings on urban property and income, public distribution of food grains and land reforms. The open break came in the presidential election of 1969. The Syndicate’s official Congress candidate was N. Sanjeeva Reddy; Indira Gandhi encouraged the Vice-President, V.V. Giri, to stand as an independent and called for a "conscience vote" — asking Congress legislators to vote as they chose. Giri won. Soon after, in July 1969, fourteen leading private banks were nationalised. The party split: the Syndicate’s group became known as Congress (O), for Organisation, and Indira Gandhi’s as Congress (R), for Requisitionists.

Indira Gandhi sought a fresh mandate, and the Lok Sabha was dissolved for elections in 1971, a year early. The non-communist, non-Congress opposition parties and the Congress (O) formed an electoral alliance, the Grand Alliance, whose message was "Indira Hatao" (remove Indira); Indira Gandhi answered with "Garibi Hatao" (remove poverty) and a positive programme. The Congress (R) won 352 seats on its own. With the victory in the Bangladesh war later that year, her popularity reached its peak. The book’s judgement is that the Congress system was restored, but changed: the new Congress depended on the popularity of one leader and a direct appeal to the poor, women, Dalits, Adivasis and minorities, rather than on accommodating factions within a broad organisation.

⚠️ Who was the official candidate in 1969?
The trap is to assume the winner was the party’s candidate. N. Sanjeeva Reddy was the official Congress candidate, backed by the Syndicate; V.V. Giri, who won, stood as an independent, supported by Indira Gandhi through the "conscience vote".

Background to the Emergency, and Its Declaration

  • Economic context — the cost of the 1971 war and of millions of refugees, the stopping of US aid, a sharp rise in world oil prices in 1973 and high inflation hit ordinary people hard.
  • Gujarat and Bihar movements (1974) — students protested against rising prices, food scarcity, unemployment and corruption; in Bihar they invited Jayaprakash Narayan (JP) to lead them, and JP called for "Total Revolution" (Sampoorna Kranti) and demanded the dismissal of the state government.
  • The railway strike of May 1974, led by George Fernandes, over pay and service conditions, which the government declared illegal.
  • Conflict with the judiciary — over Parliament’s power to amend fundamental rights and the right to property; in the Kesavananda Bharati case (1973) the Supreme Court held that the basic structure of the Constitution cannot be amended, and in the same year the government appointed A.N. Ray Chief Justice, superseding three more senior judges.

On 12 June 1975, Justice Jagmohan Lal Sinha of the Allahabad High Court declared Indira Gandhi’s election to the Lok Sabha invalid, on a petition filed by Raj Narain, who had contested against her in 1971. The Supreme Court granted a partial stay: she could remain an MP but not vote in the Lok Sabha until her appeal was decided. On 25 June the opposition led by JP held a large rally in Delhi demanding her resignation and announced a nationwide protest. That night the government declared a national Emergency under Article 352 on the ground of "internal disturbance". The government’s stated case was that the agitations threatened to destabilise a democratically elected government and to obstruct its programmes; its critics, then and since, argued that the Emergency suspended democracy to keep one leader in office.

From the split to the Janata government
  1. 1967
    Fourth general election; Congress loses several states
  2. 1969
    Presidential election; bank nationalisation; Congress splits
  3. 1971
    "Garibi Hatao" election; Congress (R) wins 352 seats
  4. 1973
    Kesavananda Bharati judgment; supersession of judges
  5. 1974
    Gujarat and Bihar movements; railway strike
  6. 12 June 1975
    Allahabad High Court verdict
  7. 25 June 1975
    Emergency declared under Article 352
  8. March 1977
    Lok Sabha elections; Congress defeated; Janata government under Morarji Desai

During and After the Emergency — Consequences and Lessons

Under the Emergency the fundamental rights of citizens were effectively suspended. Opposition leaders were arrested under preventive detention laws, the press was censored (newspapers had to get prior approval before publishing), protests and strikes were banned, and organisations including the RSS and the Jamaat-e-Islami were banned. In the ADM Jabalpur case of 1976 the Supreme Court held that citizens could not challenge their detention in court during the Emergency — a judgment later widely criticised. Parliament passed a series of constitutional amendments, the most extensive being the 42nd Amendment (1976), which among other changes extended the term of the Lok Sabha and state assemblies from five to six years. Allegations of excesses — forced sterilisation and the demolition of slums in Delhi among them — were later investigated by the Shah Commission, appointed by the Janata government in 1977 under Justice J.C. Shah.

In January 1977 the government announced elections. The major opposition parties joined to form the Janata Party, and Jagjivan Ram left the Congress to form the Congress for Democracy, which later merged with it. The elections of March 1977 became a referendum on the Emergency: the Congress was defeated at the centre for the first time, and Morarji Desai became Prime Minister. The Janata government was held together mainly by opposition to the Emergency, and its internal rivalries — between Morarji Desai, Charan Singh and Jagjivan Ram — brought it down within about two and a half years; Charan Singh briefly became Prime Minister, and in the elections of January 1980 the Congress under Indira Gandhi returned to power.

The lessons the book draws, and the changes that followed
LessonWhat changed
It is extremely difficult to do away with democracy in IndiaVoters removed the government responsible in 1977
The emergency provisions had ambiguities that could be misusedThe 44th Amendment (1978) replaced "internal disturbance" with "armed rebellion" as a ground for a national emergency, and required the President to act only on the written advice of the Union Cabinet
Citizens became more aware of their civil libertiesCivil liberties organisations grew, and the courts became more active in protecting individual rights

Key takeaways

  • Shastri (1964–66, "Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan") was followed by Indira Gandhi, who defeated Morarji Desai in a vote of Congress MPs in 1966.
  • 1967: the "political earthquake" — Congress lost several states; SVD coalitions; DMK won Madras; Lohia’s non-Congressism; "Aya Ram, Gaya Ram" defections.
  • 1969: V.V. Giri (independent, "conscience vote") beat N. Sanjeeva Reddy (official Congress); bank nationalisation; split into Congress (O) and Congress (R).
  • 1971: "Garibi Hatao" against the Grand Alliance’s "Indira Hatao"; Congress (R) won 352 seats — the Congress system restored, but leader-centred.
  • Background to the Emergency: economic crisis, the Gujarat and Bihar movements, JP’s Total Revolution, the 1974 railway strike, conflict with the judiciary.
  • Allahabad High Court verdict 12 June 1975 (Raj Narain’s petition); Emergency 25 June 1975 under Article 352 on the ground of internal disturbance; elections March 1977.
  • After: Shah Commission (1977); Janata government under Morarji Desai; 44th Amendment (1978) — "armed rebellion" and the Cabinet’s written advice.

Practice questions (10)

Attempt each one before opening the answer. Every explanation names the tempting wrong option as well as the right one, because that is where marks are lost.

  1. The phrase "Aya Ram, Gaya Ram", which became popular after 1967, refers to:

    1. Frequent defections by legislators from one party to another
    2. The rapid change of Prime Ministers after Nehru
    3. The migration of rural people to cities
    4. The rotation of Chief Ministers within the Congress
    Show answer

    Answer: A — Frequent defections by legislators from one party to another

    The phrase came from Gaya Lal, a Haryana legislator who changed party three times within a fortnight in 1967, and it describes defection for the sake of office. It has nothing to do with the change of Prime Ministers — Shastri and Indira Gandhi succeeded through the party, not by crossing the floor.

  2. In the presidential election of 1969, the official Congress candidate backed by the Syndicate was:

    1. V.V. Giri
    2. Zakir Hussain
    3. Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed
    4. N. Sanjeeva Reddy
    Show answer

    Answer: D — N. Sanjeeva Reddy

    N. Sanjeeva Reddy was the Syndicate’s official candidate. V.V. Giri, the winner, stood as an independent with Indira Gandhi’s backing through the "conscience vote" — so the winner is the trap here. Zakir Hussain was the President whose death in office caused the election.

  3. The slogan "Garibi Hatao" was raised by Indira Gandhi during the Lok Sabha elections of:

    1. 1967
    2. 1971
    3. 1977
    4. 1980
    Show answer

    Answer: B — 1971

    "Garibi Hatao" was Indira Gandhi’s answer to the Grand Alliance’s "Indira Hatao" in the 1971 elections, which the Congress (R) won with 352 seats. 1977 is the election she lost after the Emergency, and 1967 is the "political earthquake" before the split.

  4. Assertion (A): After 1971 the Congress system was restored, but it was different from the Congress system of the Nehru years.
    Reason (R): The restored Congress depended on the popularity of one leader rather than on accommodating factions within a broad organisation.

    1. Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A
    2. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A
    3. A is true, but R is false
    4. A is false, but R is true
    Show answer

    Answer: A — Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A

    The book’s judgement is exactly this: dominance returned in 1971, but the old "Congress system" of internal factions and broad accommodation gave way to a party built around Indira Gandhi’s personal appeal. R names the difference that A asserts, so it explains it.

  5. Arrange the following events in chronological order:
    A. Declaration of the Emergency
    B. Nationalisation of fourteen banks
    C. Kesavananda Bharati judgment
    D. Railway strike led by George Fernandes

    1. C, B, D, A
    2. B, D, C, A
    3. B, C, A, D
    4. B, C, D, A
    Show answer

    Answer: D — B, C, D, A

    Banks were nationalised in July 1969, the Kesavananda Bharati judgment came in 1973, the railway strike in May 1974, and the Emergency in June 1975. Putting the railway strike before the 1973 judgment is the common slip — the judicial conflict came first.

  6. The national Emergency of June 1975 was declared under Article 352 on the ground of:

    1. External aggression
    2. Armed rebellion
    3. Internal disturbance
    4. Financial emergency
    Show answer

    Answer: C — Internal disturbance

    The 1975 Emergency was declared on the ground of "internal disturbance". "Armed rebellion" is the trap: it is the wording the 44th Amendment of 1978 put in place of "internal disturbance", precisely to prevent a repeat — so it describes the law after the Emergency, not the ground used in 1975.

  7. Indira Gandhi’s election to the Lok Sabha was declared invalid by the Allahabad High Court in June 1975 on a petition filed by:

    1. Jayaprakash Narayan
    2. Morarji Desai
    3. George Fernandes
    4. Raj Narain
    Show answer

    Answer: D — Raj Narain

    Raj Narain, who had contested against Indira Gandhi in 1971, filed the election petition that Justice Jagmohan Lal Sinha upheld on 12 June 1975. Jayaprakash Narayan led the movement against the government and the rally of 25 June, which is why his name tempts, but the court case was Raj Narain’s.

  8. Consider the following statements about the changes made after the Emergency:
    1. The 44th Amendment replaced "internal disturbance" with "armed rebellion" as a ground for a national emergency.
    2. The 44th Amendment allowed the President to declare an emergency on the oral advice of the Prime Minister alone.
    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    1. Only 1
    2. Only 2
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Show answer

    Answer: A — Only 1

    Statement 1 is correct. Statement 2 reverses the reform: the 44th Amendment requires the President to proclaim an emergency only on the written advice of the Union Cabinet — a safeguard added because in 1975 the decision had been taken without the Cabinet first deciding it.

  9. The commission appointed in 1977 to inquire into the excesses committed during the Emergency was headed by:

    1. Justice Fazl Ali
    2. Justice J.C. Shah
    3. Justice A.N. Ray
    4. Justice Jagmohan Lal Sinha
    Show answer

    Answer: B — Justice J.C. Shah

    The Janata government appointed the Shah Commission under Justice J.C. Shah, a retired Supreme Court judge. Fazl Ali chaired the States Reorganisation Commission of 1953, A.N. Ray was the Chief Justice appointed in 1973, and Jagmohan Lal Sinha gave the Allahabad verdict — each a judge of this period, which is the trap.

  10. Who became Prime Minister after the Janata Party won the Lok Sabha elections of March 1977?

    1. Charan Singh
    2. Jagjivan Ram
    3. Morarji Desai
    4. Jayaprakash Narayan
    Show answer

    Answer: C — Morarji Desai

    Morarji Desai became Prime Minister of the first non-Congress government at the centre. Charan Singh is the trap: he did become Prime Minister, but later, briefly, after the Janata government broke apart; Jayaprakash Narayan inspired the movement but held no office.