Assertion (A): The leaders of independent India were initially hesitant to create states on a linguistic basis. Reason (R): After partition, they feared that dividing the country further on linguistic lines might threaten its unity.

Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A

Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A

Challenges of Nation Building — Partition, the Princely States and the Reorganisation of States

India became independent at midnight on 14–15 August 1947, when Jawaharlal Nehru spoke of a "tryst with destiny". The new nation faced three challenges at once: to shape a nation that was united yet accommodated its diversity, to establish democracy, and to ensure the development and well-being of the whole society, not just some sections. This chapter covers the first challenge as it played out in three stories — the partition that came with independence, the integration of the princely states, and the reorganisation of states on linguistic lines. Questions ask which state integrated how, which commission recommended what, and in which year a state was formed.

Partition — Displacement and Rehabilitation

Partition followed the "two-nation theory" advanced by the Muslim League — that India consisted of two peoples, Hindus and Muslims, and that Muslims needed a separate homeland. The Congress opposed the theory, but the political developments of 1940–47 made partition unavoidable. Drawing the line was hard. Muslim-majority areas lay in two regions far apart, so Pakistan was formed of West and East Pakistan separated by Indian territory. Not every Muslim-majority area wanted Pakistan — Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, the "Frontier Gandhi", of the North Western Frontier Province opposed the two-nation theory. Punjab and Bengal, Muslim-majority provinces with large non-Muslim populations, were themselves divided. And minorities on both sides of the new border were left fearing for their lives.

The result was one of the largest and most sudden movements of people in history, accompanied by communal violence on both sides, the abduction of women, the division of property, and the creation of refugee camps. Families were separated, and the administrative and financial assets of the old government — even its employees — had to be divided. For the leaders of the new nation, the lesson was clear: India would not be a state for one religion. Mahatma Gandhi, who walked through riot-hit areas to restore peace, was assassinated on 30 January 1948, and the shock helped turn the government against communal organisations. The Constitution later made India a secular state, treating all citizens equally whatever their religion.

Integration of the Princely States

British India had two kinds of territory: the British Indian provinces, ruled directly, and princely states, ruled by princes who had accepted British paramountcy. There were 565 princely states. As the British withdrew, paramountcy lapsed, and the British announced that the rulers were free to join India or Pakistan or remain independent — a decision left to the rulers, not the people. The danger was that India would break into many small countries. The interim government took a firm line. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Deputy Prime Minister and Home Minister, led the negotiations, combining persuasion with firmness, and almost all the rulers signed an Instrument of Accession, agreeing that their state would become part of India.

The states whose integration was difficult
State	What happened
Junagadh	The ruler wanted to join Pakistan; after popular opposition and a plebiscite, it became part of India
Hyderabad	The largest princely state; its ruler, the Nizam, wanted independence and signed a standstill agreement; a peasant movement in Telangana and the violence of the Razakars, a paramilitary force, followed; in September 1948 the Indian army moved in and the Nizam surrendered
Manipur	Maharaja Bodhachandra Singh signed the Instrument of Accession; in June 1948 Manipur held elections under universal adult franchise — the first part of India to do so — becoming a constitutional monarchy; in September 1949 the Maharaja signed a merger agreement without consulting the elected assembly, which caused lasting resentment
Kashmir	Its accession in October 1947, after an invasion from Pakistan’s side, is taken up in the chapter on regional aspirations

⚠️ Manipur — first with adult franchise, then merged without its assembly

Two facts about Manipur are tested together and are easily reversed. It was the first part of India to hold an election under universal adult franchise (1948); and its merger with India in 1949 was signed by the Maharaja without consulting that elected assembly.

Reorganisation of States

The national movement had promised linguistic provinces — the Congress accepted the principle at its Nagpur session of 1920. After independence, leaders including Nehru hesitated, fearing that division on linguistic lines after partition might threaten unity. Popular movements pressed the issue, most dramatically in the Telugu-speaking areas of the Madras province: Potti Sriramulu, a Congress leader and veteran Gandhian, went on an indefinite fast for a separate Andhra state and died after 56 days in December 1952. The unrest that followed forced the government’s hand, and Andhra Pradesh was formed in October 1953.

This prompted the central government to appoint the States Reorganisation Commission in 1953, chaired by Justice Fazl Ali, to look into the redrawing of state boundaries. Its report accepted that the boundaries of states should reflect the boundaries of languages, and on that basis the States Reorganisation Act of 1956 created 14 states and 6 union territories. The book’s judgement is that the fear that linguistic states would break India proved unfounded: they strengthened democracy by recognising diversity, and made it easier for people who did not speak English to take part in politics.

New states after 1956

1960
Bombay state divided into Maharashtra and Gujarat
1963
Nagaland
1966
Punjab divided; Haryana formed
1972
Meghalaya, Manipur and Tripura
1987
Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh and Goa
2000
Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand and Jharkhand
2014
Telangana

Key takeaways

Three challenges after 1947: unity with diversity, democracy, and inclusive development.
Partition followed the two-nation theory; Pakistan had two wings; Punjab and Bengal were divided; Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan opposed the theory.
565 princely states; Sardar Patel led their integration through the Instrument of Accession.
Junagadh joined after a plebiscite; Hyderabad’s Nizam surrendered in September 1948; Manipur held adult-franchise elections in 1948 and merged in 1949 without consulting its assembly.
Potti Sriramulu’s death after a 56-day fast led to Andhra Pradesh in October 1953.
The States Reorganisation Commission (1953, Fazl Ali) led to the States Reorganisation Act 1956: 14 states and 6 union territories.
Later states: Maharashtra and Gujarat 1960, Nagaland 1963, Haryana 1966, three north-eastern states 1972, Mizoram/Arunachal/Goa 1987, three states in 2000, Telangana 2014.

Practice questions (8)

Attempt each one before opening the answer. Every explanation names the tempting wrong option as well as the right one, because that is where marks are lost.

Which princely state held elections under universal adult franchise in 1948, the first part of India to do so?
1. Hyderabad
2. Junagadh
3. Manipur
4. Travancore
Show answer
Answer: C — Manipur
Manipur held elections under universal adult franchise in June 1948 and became a constitutional monarchy, before the rest of India voted in 1951–52. Junagadh is the trap because it, too, involved a popular vote — but that was a plebiscite on accession, not an election to an assembly.
The States Reorganisation Commission appointed in 1953 was chaired by:
1. Justice Fazl Ali
2. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
3. Potti Sriramulu
4. B.R. Ambedkar
Show answer
Answer: A — Justice Fazl Ali
Justice Fazl Ali chaired the commission whose report led to the States Reorganisation Act of 1956. Potti Sriramulu’s fast and death prompted the commission indirectly, which is why his name tempts, but he did not sit on it; Patel led the integration of the princely states.
The death of Potti Sriramulu after a 56-day fast in 1952 led directly to the formation of which state?
1. Tamil Nadu
2. Andhra Pradesh
3. Karnataka
4. Telangana
Show answer
Answer: B — Andhra Pradesh
Sriramulu fasted for a separate state for the Telugu-speaking areas of Madras province, and Andhra Pradesh was formed in October 1953. Telangana is also Telugu-speaking, which makes it tempting, but it was carved out of Andhra Pradesh only in 2014.
Arrange the formation of the following states in chronological order:
A. Haryana
B. Gujarat
C. Jharkhand
D. Mizoram
1. A, B, D, C
2. B, D, A, C
3. B, A, C, D
4. B, A, D, C
Show answer
Answer: D — B, A, D, C
Gujarat was formed in 1960, Haryana in 1966, Mizoram in 1987 and Jharkhand in 2000. Putting Haryana first is the usual slip; the division of Bombay state came six years before the division of Punjab.
Consider the following statements about partition:
1. Not all Muslim-majority areas wanted to be part of Pakistan.
2. Both Punjab and Bengal were divided between India and Pakistan.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
1. Only 1
2. Only 2
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2
Show answer
Answer: C — Both 1 and 2
Both are correct. The North Western Frontier Province, led by Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, opposed the two-nation theory, so statement 1 holds; and Punjab and Bengal, though Muslim-majority, had large non-Muslim populations and were themselves partitioned. These are two of the difficulties the book lists in drawing the line.
Which princely state’s ruler, the Nizam, wanted independence, a stand that ended when the Indian army moved in in September 1948?
1. Mysore
2. Junagadh
3. Bhopal
4. Hyderabad
Show answer
Answer: D — Hyderabad
The Nizam of Hyderabad, ruler of the largest princely state, sought independence; after the violence of the Razakars and a peasant uprising in Telangana, the Indian army moved in and he surrendered in September 1948. Junagadh’s ruler wanted to join Pakistan rather than be independent, and the issue was settled by a plebiscite.
The Congress accepted the principle of reorganising provinces on a linguistic basis at its session held in:
1. Lahore, 1929
2. Nagpur, 1920
3. Karachi, 1931
4. Haripura, 1938
Show answer
Answer: B — Nagpur, 1920
At the Nagpur session of 1920 the Congress reorganised its own provincial committees on linguistic lines and accepted the principle of linguistic provinces. Lahore 1929 is remembered for the resolution for complete independence, which is why it is a tempting but wrong choice.
Assertion (A): The leaders of independent India were initially hesitant to create states on a linguistic basis.
Reason (R): After partition, they feared that dividing the country further on linguistic lines might threaten its unity.
1. Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A
2. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A
3. A is true, but R is false
4. A is false, but R is true
Show answer
Answer: A — Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A
Despite the 1920 promise, leaders including Nehru hesitated after 1947 precisely because partition had just shown how division on one identity could tear a country apart. R is the reason for A; the hesitation ended only under the pressure of popular movements such as the Andhra agitation.