Language, Literature, Religion, Folk Deities, Fairs, Tribes and Society of Rajasthan
2. Literature: works, authors and languages
Literature for this exam falls into three kinds. Dingal is the bardic idiom of Rajasthani heroic and devotional poetry. Brajbhasha was the courtly poetic language that Rajasthani courts also patronised, and its works, such as the Bihari Satsai, are often painted in the courts. The third is prose chronicles and folk tales. The Prithviraj Raso, attributed to Chand Bardai, the court poet of Prithviraj Chauhan (reigned about 1177 to 1192), is a Brajbhasha epic whose earliest copy is of the 16th century. Most scholars date its composition well after Prithviraj's time, and it mixes history and legend, so it is not reliable history. Muhnot Nainsi's Nainsi ri Khyat, a 17th-century Marwar chronicle, is the key Rajasthani prose source. The Dhola-Maru ballad, of the prince Dhola and princess Maru, is a folk romance whose scenes were painted in several Rajasthani schools, including Marwar.
| Work | Author | Language or form | Date and note |
|---|---|---|---|
| Prithviraj Raso | Chand Bardai (by tradition) | Brajbhasha epic | Earliest copy 16th century; reliability disputed |
| Nainsi ri Khyat | Muhnot Nainsi | Rajasthani (Marwari) prose chronicle | 17th century; Marwar |
| Batan ri Phulwari | Vijaydan Detha | Rajasthani folk tales, collected and retold | 20th century; Borunda, Jodhpur district |
| Bihari Satsai | Bihari Lal | Brajbhasha, about 700 verses | Around 1662, at the court of Mirza Raja Jai Singh of Amber |
| Rasikapriya | Keshav Das | Brajbhasha poetics of love | 1591, at Orchha (Madhya Pradesh, not Rajasthan) |
| Gita Govinda | Jayadeva | Sanskrit lyric poem | 12th century, Bengal; a favourite theme of Rajasthani painters |
3. Religious life: saints, sects and shrines
Rajasthan's religious life is layered: Krishna devotion in the courts, Jain traditions in the west, saints who preached across faiths, and the Sufi shrine at Ajmer. The Pushtimarg, founded by Vallabhacharya, shaped the Shrinathji temple at Nathdwara and its pichhwai paintings, and Raj Singh of Kishangarh was initiated into it. Mirabai (Meera), the Krishna-devotee poet, is linked with Merta in Nagaur district. Jambheshwar gave the principles of the Bishnoi community, whose name refers to its 29 rules, including the protection of animals and trees. In 1730 Amrita Devi and others died at Khejarli defending khejri trees. The Dadupanth of Dadu Dayal is a major nirguna sect. At Ajmer, the dargah of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti draws pilgrims of all faiths, and its Urs follows the lunar Islamic calendar.
| Saint, sect or shrine | Place | Link to Rajasthan's religion |
|---|---|---|
| Pushtimarg; Shrinathji temple | Nathdwara, Rajsamand | Krishna worship; pichhwai hangings |
| Mirabai (Meera) | Merta, Nagaur | Krishna-bhakti poetry |
| Jambheshwar and the Bishnoi | Bikaner and Jodhpur region | 29 rules; protection of trees and animals; Khejarli, 1730 |
| Dadu Dayal and the Dadupanth | Rajasthan | Nirguna (formless) devotion |
| Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti; dargah | Ajmer | Sufi shrine; Urs by lunar calendar |
| Jain temples | Dilwara (Mount Abu); Ranakpur (Pali) | Śvetāmbara Jain pilgrimage; white marble |
4. Folk deities: protectors, healers and heroes
Folk deities of Rajasthan are often local heroes who died in a righteous cause and were then worshipped as protectors, honoured across caste and faith. Ramdevji, whose shrine is at Ramdevra in Jaisalmer district, is a protector of travellers and the poor, and his devotees include Hindus and Muslims. Pabuji, a Rathore hero, and Devnarayan are sung by bhopas, who unroll painted scrolls called phads as they sing; the Shahpura phad of Bhilwara is the best-known. Gogaji, at Gogamedi in Hanumangarh district, is a snake-protecting hero honoured by Hindu and Muslim devotees, and Tejaji of Nagaur is worshipped as a protector against snakes. Karni Mata of Deshnoke, near Bikaner, is revered by the Charan community as an embodiment of Shakti, and her temple is known for its sacred rats. The large shrines of the Shakti and Hanuman traditions include Shila Mata at Amer, Kaila Devi at Karauli, Khatu Shyamji in Sikar, Salasar Balaji in Churu and Mehandipur Balaji in Dausa.
| Deity | Shrine and place | Worship and community link |
|---|---|---|
| Ramdevji | Ramdevra, Pokaran, Jaisalmer district | Tomar (Tanwar) Rajput hero; Hindu and Muslim devotees |
| Pabuji | Phad recitation across western Rajasthan | Rathore hero sung by bhopas with the phad scroll |
| Gogaji | Gogamedi, Hanumangarh district | Snake protection; Hindu and Muslim devotees |
| Tejaji | Nagaur district | Protector against snakes |
| Karni Mata | Deshnoke, about 30 km south of Bikaner | Charan community; embodiment of Shakti; sacred rats |
| Kaila Devi | Karauli | Shakti shrine with a large spring fair |
| Salasar Balaji | Churu | Hanuman shrine |
5. Fairs and festivals: the state calendar
The state tourism portal and the Rajasthan Foundation list the fairs by month. The year runs from the winter cattle and camel fairs, through spring festivals and the monsoon Teej, to the autumn Pushkar Fair. Most fairs are tied to a shrine, a harvest or the lunar calendar, so learn the year as a sequence. In January and February come the Bikaner camel festival, the Nagaur cattle fair, the Jaisalmer Desert Festival and the Baneshwar fair in Dungarpur district. In March and April come the Mewar Festival at Udaipur and the Elephant Festival at Jaipur, and Gangaur, which is observed in Jaipur and Jodhpur in the spring month of Chaitra. In July and August comes Teej at Jaipur, and in August and September Kajli Teej at Bundi. In November comes the Pushkar Fair, held around Kartik Purnima. The Urs of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti at Ajmer has no fixed Gregorian month because it follows the lunar Islamic calendar.
| Fair or festival | Place | Month |
|---|---|---|
| Camel Festival | Bikaner | January |
| Nagaur cattle fair | Nagaur | January–February |
| Desert Festival | Jaisalmer | January–February |
| Baneshwar fair | Dungarpur district | January–February |
| Mewar Festival | Udaipur | March–April |
| Elephant Festival | Jaipur | March–April |
| Gangaur | Jaipur and Jodhpur | Spring (Chaitra) |
| Teej | Jaipur | July–August |
| Kajli Teej | Bundi | August–September |
| Pushkar Fair | Pushkar, Ajmer district | November (Kartik Purnima) |
| Urs of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti | Ajmer | Lunar Islamic calendar |
6. Tribes and society: custom, dress and reform
The commission's Paper I item names the Bhil, Meena and Garasia by name. The Bhil (with their sub-groups) and the Meena are the two largest tribal communities of the state, each above 40 lakh in Census 2011 by most counts, and the Bhil are concentrated in the south and south-east around Dungarpur, Banswara, Udaipur and Pratapgarh. Their traditions include Gavri and Gair, and Ghoomar is said to have Bhil origins. The Meena are concentrated in eastern Rajasthan, around Jaipur, Dausa and Sawai Madhopur. The Garasia live in the Sirohi and Abu hill belt. The Sahariya live in Baran district and are among the state's particularly vulnerable tribal groups. The Kanjar of Hadoti perform Chakri, and the Kalbelia are a community of former snake handlers who became dancers. In social life, purdah and the ghoonghat shaped women's public appearance, and jharokhas let women watch the street unseen. The Rajasthan Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987 was passed after the death of Roop Kanwar at Deorala in Sikar district in 1987. Teej, Gangaur and the bride's welcome dance show women's customs in festival form. Attire is distinctive too, with bandhani and leheriya tie-dye, the odhni and the safa turban. Among leading personalities, Rao Jodha founded Jodhpur in 1459, Rana Kumbha ruled Mewar from 1433 to 1468, and Sawai Jai Singh II founded Jaipur in 1727.
| Tribe | Main area | Known for |
|---|---|---|
| Bhil | South and south-east: Dungarpur, Banswara, Udaipur, Pratapgarh | One of the two largest tribes (Census 2011); Gavri, Gair, origins of Ghoomar |
| Meena | East: Jaipur, Dausa, Sawai Madhopur | One of the two largest tribes (Census 2011) |
| Garasia | Sirohi and Abu hill belt | Hill and forest community named in the Mains syllabus |
| Sahariya | Baran district | Particularly vulnerable tribal group |
| Kanjar | Hadoti | Chakri dance |
| Kalbelia | Across the state | Former snake handlers; dance inscribed by UNESCO in 2010 |
Key takeaways
- Rajasthani is a cluster of varieties: Marwari in the west, Dhundhari in the north-east, Mewari in the south, Harauti in the south-east, with Brajbhasha works like Prithviraj Raso and Bihari Satsai kept separate.
- The constitutional status of Rajasthani is dated: not in the Eighth Schedule, a 2003 Assembly resolution, and the May 2026 Supreme Court direction to teach it in schools.
- Learn saints and folk deities with their shrine: Mirabai at Merta, Ramdevji at Ramdevra, Karni Mata at Deshnoke, Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti at Ajmer.
- Fairs are a calendar: January–February for camel and cattle fairs, March–April for the Mewar and Elephant festivals, July–August for Teej, November for Pushkar, and the Ajmer Urs on the lunar calendar.
- Tribes are placed by region: Bhil in the south and south-east, Meena in the east, Garasia in the Sirohi-Abu belt and Sahariya in Baran.
- Sati prohibition in Rajasthan rests on the Rajasthan Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987, passed after the Deorala case in Sikar district.
Practice questions (16)
Attempt each one before opening the answer. Every explanation names the tempting wrong option as well as the right one, because that is where marks are lost.
Where is the Dhundhari (Jaipuri) variety of Rajasthani chiefly spoken?
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Answer: C — Dhundhar, north-east Rajasthan (Jaipur, Dausa, Tonk)
Dhundhari is named for the Dhundhar region of north-east Rajasthan around Jaipur, Dausa, Tonk and Sawai Madhopur. The other three regions carry their own varieties: Marwari, Mewari and Harauti.Who wrote the prose chronicle Nainsi ri Khyat, a major Rajasthani source for Marwar's history?
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Answer: B — Muhnot Nainsi
Muhnot Nainsi, a 17th-century Marwar figure, wrote Nainsi ri Khyat. Chand Bardai is credited with the Prithviraj Raso, Bihari Lal with the Bihari Satsai, and Vijaydan Detha retold Rajasthani folk tales in Batan ri Phulwari.Merta in Nagaur district is associated with which Krishna-devotee poet?
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Answer: D — Mirabai
Mirabai, the Krishna-bhakti poet, is linked with Merta in Nagaur district. Dadu Dayal founded the Dadupanth, Jambheshwar gave the rules of the Bishnoi, and Ramdevji is a folk deity of Ramdevra in Jaisalmer district.In which district is Deshnoke, the temple of Karni Mata known for its sacred rats?
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Answer: C — Bikaner
Deshnoke lies about 30 km south of Bikaner, and its temple is known for the sacred kaba rats. Jodhpur, Barmer and Churu are neighbouring districts, but none of them holds this temple.Which legislature passed a 2003 resolution seeking to add Rajasthani to the Eighth Schedule?
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Answer: D — Rajasthan Legislative Assembly
The Rajasthan Legislative Assembly passed a unanimous resolution in 2003 seeking inclusion of Rajasthani in the Eighth Schedule. The Eighth Schedule is amended by Parliament, so a state assembly resolution is a request, while the High Court and the RPSC have no role in it.The Kuvalayamala of 778 CE refers to the speech of Rajasthan by which name?
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Answer: C — Maru Bhasha
Udyotan Suri's Kuvalayamala of 778 CE uses the term Maru Bhasha for the language of the desert region, an older name for the Rajasthani speech. Dingal is a poetic idiom of bards, Brajbhasha is a different courtly language, and Pingal is the name of a poetic metre tradition, not a regional speech.The Bishnoi community takes its name from the 29 principles laid down by which teacher?
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Answer: D — Jambheshwar
The Bishnoi take their name from their 29 principles, which Jambheshwar gave, including protection of animals and trees. Vallabhacharya founded Pushtimarg, Dadu Dayal the Dadupanth, and Nimbarkacharya a Vaishnava sect, so none of those three gave the 29 rules.Which calendar governs the timing of the Urs of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti at Ajmer?
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Answer: B — Lunar Islamic (Hijri) calendar
The Urs marks the Khwaja's death anniversary, and that date is fixed by the lunar Islamic calendar, so the Gregorian date shifts each year. Vikram Samvat and the Saka era are Indian calendars that govern festivals such as Diwali and the national calendar.Which community is concentrated in Baran district and is classed among the particularly vulnerable tribal groups of Rajasthan?
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Answer: C — Sahariya
The Sahariya are concentrated in Baran district and are among the state's particularly vulnerable tribal groups. The Bhil are of the south and south-east, the Garasia of the Sirohi-Abu hill belt, and the Meena of eastern Rajasthan, so none of those is the answer.Which law was enacted in Rajasthan in 1987 after the Deorala case in Sikar district?
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Answer: D — Rajasthan Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987
The Rajasthan Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987 followed the Deorala incident of 1987 in Sikar district. The other three Acts deal with land tenancy, recruitment fairness and the official language, and none is about sati.Arrange these fairs in the order they fall in the calendar year, earliest first: Pushkar Fair; Kajli Teej at Bundi; Desert Festival at Jaisalmer; Mewar Festival at Udaipur. Which order is correct?
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Answer: C — Desert Festival, Mewar Festival, Kajli Teej, Pushkar Fair
The Desert Festival falls in January and February, the Mewar Festival in March and April, Kajli Teej in August and September, and the Pushkar Fair in November. The key is that the winter fair comes first and the autumn Pushkar Fair last.Consider the following about Rajasthani and Brajbhasha literature.
P. Prithviraj Raso is attributed to Chand Bardai and written in Brajbhasha.
Q. Rasikapriya by Keshav Das was composed at Orchha in 1591.
R. Nainsi ri Khyat was written in Brajbhasha at the court of Amber.
S. Bihari Satsai is a work of Rajasthani prose.
Which statements are correct?Show answer
Answer: D — P and Q only
P and Q are correct. R is wrong because Nainsi ri Khyat is a Rajasthani prose chronicle of Marwar, not a Brajbhasha work from Amber. S is wrong because the Bihari Satsai is a Brajbhasha poem of about 700 verses.In May 2026 the Supreme Court decided Padam Mehta and Another v. State of Rajasthan on teaching Rajasthani in schools. Which statements about that judgment are correct?
P. The Court held that non-inclusion of Rajasthani in the Eighth Schedule justified excluding it from schools.
Q. The Court directed the State to introduce Rajasthani as a subject in government and private schools in a phased manner.
R. The Court directed the State to file a compliance affidavit by 25 September 2026.
S. The Court added Rajasthani to the Eighth Schedule.Show answer
Answer: C — Q and R only
Q and R are correct. P is the State's argument, which the Court rejected as myopic. S is outside the Court's power in this case, because the Eighth Schedule is amended by Parliament and the judgment did not do so.Consider the following statements about fairs.
P. The Bikaner camel festival is held in January.
Q. The Teej festival at Jaipur falls in July and August.
R. The Pushkar Fair is held in March and April.
S. The Mewar Festival at Udaipur is held in March and April.
Which statements are correct?Show answer
Answer: D — P, Q and S only
P, Q and S are correct. R is false: the Pushkar Fair is held in November around Kartik Purnima, while March and April is the time of Udaipur's Mewar Festival.Which pairing of folk deity and shrine is correct?
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Answer: C — Gogaji with Gogamedi, Hanumangarh district
Gogaji's shrine is at Gogamedi in Hanumangarh district. Karni Mata's temple is at Deshnoke near Bikaner, Ramdevji's shrine is at Ramdevra in Jaisalmer district, and Kaila Devi is at Karauli, while Mehandipur Balaji is the Dausa shrine.Which pairing of tribe and region is correct?
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Answer: D — Garasia, Sirohi and Abu hill belt
The Garasia live in the Sirohi and Abu hill belt. The Sahariya are in Baran, the Bhil are concentrated in Dungarpur, Banswara and the south, and the Meena are in eastern Rajasthan around Jaipur and Dausa, so the other three pairings each put a tribe in the wrong region.