Rights, Consumer Protection and Internal Security
Commissions and the Central Consumer Protection Authority
Disputes go to a three-tier quasi-judicial system: the District Commission, the State Commission and the National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission (National Commission). The limit is the value of goods or services paid as consideration. The Act set the limits at 1 crore and 10 crore rupees, but the Consumer Protection (Jurisdiction of the District Commission, the State Commission and the National Commission) Rules, 2021, notified on 30 December 2021, revised them. As per these Rules (checked against 2021 notification reports; confirm later changes before relying on them): District up to 50 lakh, State above 50 lakh up to 2 crore, National above 2 crore. Appeals go upward: District to State, State to National, and from the National Commission to the Supreme Court.
Worked example (limits as per the 2021 Rules). A complaint about a flat bought for 1.2 crore rupees goes to the State Commission, because 1.2 crore lies above 50 lakh and below 2 crore. A refund claim of 30 lakh goes to the District Commission. A dispute valued at 3 crore goes to the National Commission.
The Act also created the Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA), a regulator that protects consumers as a class. It can inquire into violations of rights and unfair trade practices, order the recall of unsafe goods, order refunds, and act against false or misleading advertisements and those who endorse them. It also introduced product liability (manufacturer, seller and service provider can be made liable for harm from a defective product or deficient service) and made mediation available.
Right to Information Act 2005
The RTI Act 2005 gives citizens the right to information held by public authorities. It was enacted on 15 June 2005 and its main provisions came into force on 12 October 2005. Every public authority names a Public Information Officer (PIO); the applicant pays a small fee and need not give a reason. The PIO must reply within 30 days, and within 48 hours where the information concerns the life or liberty of a person.
- First appeal: to a senior officer in the same public authority, within 30 days of the decision or the deadline.
- Second appeal: to the Central Information Commission (central bodies) or the State Information Commission (state bodies), within 90 days.
- Exemptions (section 8) protect, for example, sovereignty and security, and information barred by a court. Section 24 excludes the intelligence and security organisations in the Second Schedule, except on corruption and human-rights violations.
Human rights and the NHRC
Human rights are the basic rights of every person. The UN General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights on 10 December 1948, which is why 10 December is Human Rights Day. The Declaration is not a treaty; the two binding covenants of 1966 (civil and political rights; economic, social and cultural rights) followed. In India the same ideas appear as Fundamental Rights (Part III) and the Directive Principles (Part IV).
The Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993 set up the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC), State Human Rights Commissions and Human Rights Courts in districts. The NHRC inquires into violation of human rights or negligence in preventing it by a public servant, on a complaint or on its own motion, and can visit jails. Its findings are recommendations; it cannot punish. The 2019 amendment widened who can chair it: a former Chief Justice of India or a former judge of the Supreme Court.
Police and the central armed police forces
In the Constitution, public order and police are subjects of the State List, so each state runs its own police. The Centre, through the Ministry of Home Affairs, supports states with the Central Armed Police Forces (CAPFs), which the Ministry lists as seven forces. They guard borders, protect installations or act in internal security and are separate from the Army, which is under the Ministry of Defence.
| Force | Main task |
|---|---|
| Border Security Force (BSF) | Guards the Pakistan and Bangladesh borders |
| Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP) | Guards the China border |
| Sashastra Seema Bal (SSB) | Guards the Nepal and Bhutan borders |
| Assam Rifles (AR) | Guards the Myanmar border and acts in the north-east |
| Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) | Internal security, counter-insurgency, law and order |
| Central Industrial Security Force (CISF) | Airports, metro, ports and industrial sites |
| National Security Guard (NSG) | Counter-terror strike force, raised in 1984 |
NIA, UAPA and the internal security threats
The main internal-security threats named in public-domain material are terrorism, left-wing extremism (Naxalism, which began at Naxalbari in West Bengal in 1967), insurgency in parts of the north-east and in Jammu and Kashmir, and organised crime and cyber crime. The Intelligence Bureau (IB) collects internal intelligence and works under the Home Ministry; R&AW deals with external intelligence and reports to the Cabinet Secretariat.
The National Investigation Agency (NIA) is the central counter-terrorism investigating agency, created under the National Investigation Agency Act, 2008, which Parliament passed after the November 2008 Mumbai attacks. It investigates scheduled offences across state boundaries, and cases are tried in Special Courts. A 2019 amendment widened its list to include offences such as human trafficking, counterfeit currency, prohibited arms and cyber-terrorism.
The Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act, 1967 (UAPA) is the main anti-terror law. It allows the Centre to declare an association unlawful or a terrorist organisation, and since the 2019 amendment to designate individuals as terrorists, not only organisations.
Key takeaways
- The Consumer Protection Act 2019 replaced the 1986 Act; in force 20 July 2020, CCPA from 24 July 2020. Six rights: safety, information, choice, to be heard, redressal, awareness.
- Three tiers: District, State, National Commission; as per the 2021 Rules, up to 50 lakh, above 50 lakh to 2 crore, above 2 crore. CCPA is a class regulator for recalls and misleading advertisements.
- RTI Act 2005 (in force 12 October 2005): PIO replies in 30 days (48 hours for life or liberty); first appeal within the authority, second appeal to the Information Commission.
- UDHR adopted 10 December 1948 (Human Rights Day). The Protection of Human Rights Act 1993 created the NHRC, which recommends but cannot punish.
- Police and public order are State List subjects; the Home Ministry's seven CAPFs are BSF, ITBP, SSB, Assam Rifles, CRPF, CISF and NSG.
- NIA investigates terror (Act of 2008); UAPA 1967 is the anti-terror law, with individuals designable since 2019.
Practice questions (17)
Attempt each one before opening the answer. Every explanation names the tempting wrong option as well as the right one, because that is where marks are lost.
The Consumer Protection Act, 2019 replaced which earlier law?
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Answer: B — Consumer Protection Act, 1986
The 2019 Act repealed and replaced the Consumer Protection Act, 1986. The Sale of Goods Act of 1930 governs contracts of sale and still operates, so it is the tempting but wrong choice.Which of the following is NOT one of the six consumer rights listed in the Consumer Protection Act, 2019?
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Answer: D — Right to claim a refund within seven days of every purchase
The six rights are safety, information, choice, to be heard, redressal and awareness. A blanket seven-day refund right is not among them, although it may be a seller's own policy.As per the Consumer Protection Rules, 2021 (notified 30 December 2021), a complaint about services paid for at Rs 1.5 crore goes to which forum?
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Answer: A — State Commission
1.5 crore lies above 50 lakh and not above 2 crore, so the State Commission has jurisdiction. The District Commission's ceiling is 50 lakh under the Rules, so it is too low; the National Commission begins above 2 crore, so it is too high.As per the 2021 Rules, a buyer's loss is claimed at 60 lakh rupees for goods bought at 40 lakh. Where must the complaint be filed, given that jurisdiction is decided by the consideration paid?
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Answer: C — District Commission, because the consideration paid is 40 lakh
The limit is based on the value of goods or services paid as consideration, which is 40 lakh, within the District Commission's 50 lakh ceiling. The claimed loss does not decide the forum, and the CCPA does not hear individual complaints.The Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA) was brought into effect from which date?
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Answer: B — 24 July 2020
The CCPA provisions took effect on 24 July 2020, four days after the Act itself began on 20 July 2020. That earlier date is the tempting wrong key.Under the RTI Act 2005, within how many days must a Public Information Officer normally reply to a request?
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Answer: D — 30 days
The ordinary reply period is 30 days. The 90-day figure belongs to the time allowed for a second appeal, not the first reply.Statements. P: Under the RTI Act, a request concerning a person's life or liberty must be answered within 48 hours. Q: The first appeal lies to the Central Information Commission. R: The Act's main provisions came into force on 12 October 2005. Which are correct?
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Answer: C — P and R only
P and R are correct. Q is wrong because the first appeal goes to a senior officer within the same public authority; the Information Commission hears the second appeal.A request is refused on day 5. The applicant files a first appeal on day 20 after the refusal and the appellate authority rejects it on day 50. Within what period from the first-appeal decision can the second appeal be filed, using the Act's window?
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Answer: A — Within 90 days of that decision
The second appeal to the Information Commission is within 90 days of the first-appeal decision. The 30-day period governs the first appeal, and the other figures have no basis in the Act.Human Rights Day is observed every year on which date?
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Answer: D — 10 December
10 December marks the 1948 adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. 24 October is United Nations Day, the usual mix-up.Which law set up the National Human Rights Commission of India?
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Answer: C — Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993
The NHRC is a statutory body under the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993. It is not a constitutional body created by an amendment, so the 1976 amendment option is wrong.Statements. P: The NHRC can inquire into human rights violations on its own motion. Q: The NHRC can directly sentence an erring public servant to imprisonment. R: The 2019 amendment allows a former Supreme Court judge, as well as a former Chief Justice of India, to chair it. Which are correct?
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Answer: B — P and R only
P and R are correct. Q is wrong because the NHRC only recommends; sentencing is the work of courts. Any option containing Q fails.Police and public order are subjects in which list of the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution?
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Answer: A — State List
Public order and police are in the State List. The Union List holds the Centre's own forces and defence, and that overlap makes it the tempting wrong answer.Which central armed police force is responsible for guarding the India-China border?
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Answer: C — Indo-Tibetan Border Police
The ITBP guards the China border. The Sashastra Seema Bal guards the Nepal and Bhutan borders, while the BSF guards the Pakistan and Bangladesh borders.Match. P: CISF; Q: SSB; R: NSG; S: Assam Rifles. With:
(i) Nepal and Bhutan borders;
(ii) airports and metro networks;
(iii) the Myanmar border and the north-east;
(iv) counter-terror strike force raised in 1984.Show answer
Answer: D — P-ii, Q-i, R-iv, S-iii
CISF guards airports and metro, SSB the Nepal and Bhutan borders, NSG is the 1984 counter-terror force, and Assam Rifles holds the Myanmar border. The pairing that gives CISF the Nepal and Bhutan borders swaps CISF and SSB.The National Investigation Agency was created under an Act passed after which event?
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Answer: B — The November 2008 Mumbai attacks
The National Investigation Agency Act, 2008 followed the November 2008 Mumbai attacks. The 2001 Parliament attack led to a different anti-terror law of its time, which is the tempting wrong choice.Which one is the main central anti-terror law, which since a 2019 amendment lets the Centre designate individuals as terrorists?
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Answer: A — Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act, 1967
The UAPA 1967 is the designation law. The NIA Act 2008 creates an investigating agency and does not itself designate terrorists, though it was also amended in 2019.Which pairing of body and function is correct?
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Answer: C — NIA, investigates scheduled terror offences
The NIA investigates scheduled offences under its 2008 Act. NSG is the strike force and IB the internal intelligence body, so those two are swapped; R&AW reports to the Cabinet Secretariat, not the Home Ministry.