In the battle of 1565 known as Rakshasi-Tangadi or Talikota, the Vijayanagara army was defeated by the combined forces of:

The Mughals, Bijapur and Golconda

The Gajapatis, the Bahmanis and the Portuguese

Ahmadnagar, the Marathas and the Portuguese

Which statement about the amara-nayakas of Vijayanagara is correct?

They were military commanders who governed territories, kept part of the revenue to maintain troops, and paid tribute annually

They were priests who managed temple endowments for the king

They were Portuguese officials stationed at Goa who supplied Arabian and Central Asian horses to the rayas in return for trading rights

They were military commanders who governed territories, kept part of the revenue to maintain troops, and paid tribute annually

They were village headmen elected by peasants

Assertion (A): The fortifications of Vijayanagara enclosed agricultural tracts and forests as well as the city. Reason (R): Medieval sieges aimed to starve defenders into submission, so fields within the walls protected the food supply.

Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A

Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A

Royal orders of the Vijayanagara rulers were signed "Shri Virupaksha". This reflects the claim that the rulers:

Ruled on behalf of the god Virupaksha, the guardian deity of the kingdom

Were descended from a sage named Virupaksha

Had converted to Vaishnavism under Krishnadeva Raya

Shared power with the priests of the Virupaksha temple

Krishnadeva Raya, who ruled from 1509 to 1529, belonged to which dynasty, and what work on statecraft is he credited with?

Tuluva; the Amuktamalyada in Telugu

Sangama; the Rajatarangini in Sanskrit

Aravidu; the Ain-i Akbari in Persian

Saluva; the Arthashastra in Sanskrit

Tuluva; the Amuktamalyada in Telugu

An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara (c. Fourteenth to Sixteenth Century)

Vijayanagara, the "city of victory", was the capital of an empire that for more than two centuries dominated the peninsula south of the Krishna. Its ruins at Hampi, on the banks of the Tungabhadra, are among the most extensively studied in India — reconstructed from the buildings themselves, from inscriptions, and from the accounts of travellers from Italy, Persia, Russia and Portugal who saw the city at its height. The chapter takes the political history first, then the city: its water supply and fortifications, the royal centre, and the sacred centre with its great temples. The paper asks the dynasties, the dates, the travellers, and what each building was — or might have been — used for.

The Discovery of Hampi

The ruins at Hampi were brought to light in 1800 by an engineer and antiquarian named Colin Mackenzie, an employee of the English East India Company who later became the first Surveyor General of India. Much of his initial information was based on the memories of priests of the Virupaksha temple and the shrine of Pampadevi; the name Hampi derives from Pampadevi, the local mother goddess. From 1856 photographers began recording the monuments, and from 1876 epigraphists collected inscriptions found on the walls of the temples. Historians have pieced together the city from these sources, from travellers' accounts, and from literature in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil and Sanskrit.

Rayas, Nayakas and Sultans — the Political History

According to tradition and epigraphic evidence, two brothers, Harihara and Bukka, founded the Vijayanagara empire in 1336. Its rulers called themselves rayas. The empire was ruled by four dynasties in succession — the Sangama, the Saluva, the Tuluva and the Aravidu. Its rivals included the sultans of the Deccan — first the Bahmani sultanate and later the sultanates that emerged from it — and the Gajapati rulers of Odisha. The fertile river valleys, and the wealth generated by overseas trade, were constant objects of contest.

Vijayanagara — key dates

1336
Harihara and Bukka found the empire (Sangama dynasty)
1509–29
Reign of Krishnadeva Raya of the Tuluva dynasty
1565
Battle of Rakshasi-Tangadi (Talikota): Vijayanagara army under Rama Raya defeated by the combined forces of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar and Golconda; the city is sacked
1800
Colin Mackenzie brings the ruins at Hampi to light

Krishnadeva Raya (ruled 1509–29), of the Tuluva dynasty, is the best-known ruler. His reign was marked by expansion and consolidation — he acquired the land between the Tungabhadra and the Krishna (the Raichur doab) in 1512, subdued the rulers of Odisha in 1514 and inflicted defeats on the Sultan of Bijapur in 1520. He is credited with building fine temples and adding impressive gopurams to many south Indian temples, and with composing a work on statecraft in Telugu, the Amuktamalyada.
Horses and trade: warfare depended on cavalry, so importing horses from Arabia and Central Asia was vital; this trade was first controlled by Arab traders, and local merchants known as kudirai chettis (horse merchants) also took part. From 1498 the Portuguese arrived on the west coast and tried to establish trading and military stations; their better military technology, especially muskets, made them an important player.
The amara-nayaka system was a major political innovation, which drew on the iqta system of the Delhi Sultanate. The amara-nayakas were military commanders given territories to govern by the raya; they collected taxes and other dues from peasants, craftspersons and traders, retained part of the revenue for personal use and for maintaining a stipulated contingent of horses and elephants, and sent tribute to the king annually. Many later established independent kingdoms, which hastened the collapse of central authority.

⚠️ Who fought at Talikota in 1565

The combined armies were those of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar and Golconda, and the Vijayanagara forces were led by Rama Raya of the Aravidu line, not by Krishnadeva Raya, who had died in 1529. Distractors add the Mughals or the Gajapatis to the alliance, or put Krishnadeva Raya in command.

The City — Water, Fortifications and Roads

The most striking feature of the location is the natural basin formed by the Tungabhadra, which flows in a north-easterly direction. The surrounding landscape is characterised by granite hills that seem to form a girdle around the city. Since the region is among the most arid zones of the peninsula, elaborate arrangements were made to store rainwater and conduct it to the city. The most important such tank was built in the early fifteenth century and is now called Kamalapuram tank; water from it irrigated fields nearby and was conducted through a channel to the royal centre. The Hiriya canal drew water from a dam across the Tungabhadra to irrigate the cultivated valley that separated the sacred centre from the urban core; it was apparently built by kings of the Sangama dynasty.

Abdur Razzaq, an ambassador sent by the ruler of Persia to Calicut in the fifteenth century, was greatly impressed by the fortifications, and mentioned seven lines of forts. These encircled not only the city but also its agricultural hinterland and forests — a feature that set Vijayanagara apart, since medieval sieges aimed to starve the defenders into submission, and fields within the walls made granaries less vulnerable. The fortification walls were built of stone without mortar, the stones wedged together by interlocking, and the gateways had arches and domes of a kind regarded as typical of the architecture introduced by the Turkish Sultans — the so-called Indo-Islamic style.

Travellers who described Vijayanagara
Traveller	From	When
Niccolò de Conti	Italy	Early fifteenth century
Abdur Razzaq	Persia (ambassador)	Fifteenth century
Afanasii Nikitin	Russia (merchant)	Fifteenth century
Duarte Barbosa, Domingo Paes, Fernão Nuniz	Portugal	Sixteenth century

The Royal Centre and the Sacred Centre

The royal centre lay in the south-western part of the settlement. Although designated as a royal centre, it included over 60 temples — patronage of temples was one way rulers sought to establish their authority. About thirty building complexes there have been identified as palaces; one of the largest, the "King's palace", has no definite evidence that it was a royal residence.
The mahanavami dibba, a massive platform rising from a base of about 11,000 square feet to a height of 40 feet, is associated with the Mahanavami festival ("great ninth day") of the autumn months of September and October — known in other parts of India as Dussehra, Durga Puja or Navaratri — when the king displayed his prestige, power and suzerainty through rituals, processions and the inspection of his army.
The Lotus Mahal was given its name by British travellers in the nineteenth century. Its purpose is not known; one suggestion, based on a map by Mackenzie, is that it may have been a council chamber where the king met his advisers.
The Hazara Rama temple was probably meant to be used only by the king and his family; its central shrine images are missing, but sculpted panels on the walls survive, including scenes from the Ramayana on the inner walls.

The sacred centre lay along the rocky northern end of the city, on the banks of the Tungabhadra. Local traditions hold that these hills sheltered the monkey kingdom of Vali and Sugriva of the Ramayana, and that Pampadevi performed austerities here to marry Virupaksha, the guardian deity of the kingdom, recognised as a form of Shiva. The rulers of Vijayanagara claimed to rule on behalf of the god Virupaksha, and all royal orders were signed "Shri Virupaksha", usually in Kannada script. Temple architecture developed new features: raya gopurams, royal gateways that often dwarfed the towers on the central shrines and signalled the presence of the temple from a great distance; mandapas, pavilions; and long pillared corridors around the shrines. The Vitthala temple is dedicated to Vitthala, a form of Vishnu generally worshipped in Maharashtra — an example of a deity from another region introduced into the imperial culture; it has several halls and a unique shrine designed as a chariot, and its chariot streets extended from the temple gopuram.

Key takeaways

Harihara and Bukka founded Vijayanagara in 1336; four dynasties ruled — Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva and Aravidu.
Krishnadeva Raya (1509–29), of the Tuluva dynasty, added gopurams and wrote the Amuktamalyada in Telugu.
In 1565, at Rakshasi-Tangadi (Talikota), Rama Raya's army was defeated by Bijapur, Ahmadnagar and Golconda, and the city was sacked.
Amara-nayakas governed territories, kept part of the revenue for troops and horses, and paid annual tribute — drawing on the Sultanate's iqta.
Colin Mackenzie brought Hampi to light in 1800; the name comes from the goddess Pampadevi.
Abdur Razzaq described seven lines of forts enclosing fields and forests; the Kamalapuram tank and Hiriya canal supplied water.
Royal orders were signed "Shri Virupaksha"; raya gopurams dwarfed the central towers; the Vitthala temple honours a deity from Maharashtra.

Practice questions (8)

Attempt each one before opening the answer. Every explanation names the tempting wrong option as well as the right one, because that is where marks are lost.

The ruins at Hampi were brought to light in 1800 by:
1. Alexander Cunningham, of the Archaeological Survey
2. James Prinsep, an officer of the Company's mint
3. Domingo Paes, a Portuguese traveller
4. Colin Mackenzie, later the first Surveyor General of India
Show answer
Answer: D — Colin Mackenzie, later the first Surveyor General of India
Colin Mackenzie, an engineer and antiquarian of the East India Company, surveyed the ruins in 1800 using the memories of local priests; he later became the first Surveyor General. Domingo Paes did see Vijayanagara — but in the sixteenth century, when it was a living city, not ruins awaiting discovery. Cunningham's Survey did not exist until 1861.
Arrange the dynasties of Vijayanagara in the order in which they ruled: (A) Tuluva (B) Sangama (C) Aravidu (D) Saluva
1. B, D, A, C
2. B, A, D, C
3. D, B, A, C
4. B, D, C, A
Show answer
Answer: A — B, D, A, C
The Sangama dynasty of Harihara and Bukka came first, then the Saluvas, then the Tuluvas — the dynasty of Krishnadeva Raya — and finally the Aravidu, to which Rama Raya belonged. Putting the Tuluva before the Saluva is the common slip, because Krishnadeva Raya is so famous that candidates place his dynasty earlier than it was.
In the battle of 1565 known as Rakshasi-Tangadi or Talikota, the Vijayanagara army was defeated by the combined forces of:
1. The Mughals, Bijapur and Golconda
2. Bijapur, Ahmadnagar and Golconda
3. The Gajapatis, the Bahmanis and the Portuguese
4. Ahmadnagar, the Marathas and the Portuguese
Show answer
Answer: B — Bijapur, Ahmadnagar and Golconda
The sultanates of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar and Golconda combined to defeat the army led by Rama Raya, and the city was sacked. The Bahmani sultanate had already broken up into these successor states by then, so naming it is anachronistic, and the Mughals had not yet reached the Deccan in 1565.
Which statement about the amara-nayakas of Vijayanagara is correct?
1. They were priests who managed temple endowments for the king
2. They were Portuguese officials stationed at Goa who supplied Arabian and Central Asian horses to the rayas in return for trading rights
3. They were military commanders who governed territories, kept part of the revenue to maintain troops, and paid tribute annually
4. They were village headmen elected by peasants
Show answer
Answer: C — They were military commanders who governed territories, kept part of the revenue to maintain troops, and paid tribute annually
Amara-nayakas were military commanders given territory by the raya; they collected taxes, retained part of the revenue to maintain a stipulated contingent of horses and elephants, and sent tribute to the king. The system drew on the iqta of the Delhi Sultanate. Horse suppliers were the kudirai chettis and Arab traders, not the nayakas.
Match the structure at Vijayanagara with what is known about it. A. Mahanavami dibba B. Lotus Mahal C. Hazara Rama temple D. Vitthala temple — 1. Named by British travellers; purpose uncertain 2. Platform linked to an autumn festival 3. Dedicated to a form of Vishnu worshipped in Maharashtra 4. Probably for the king and his family; Ramayana panels
1. A-1, B-2, C-4, D-3
2. A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3
3. A-2, B-1, C-3, D-4
4. A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3
Show answer
Answer: D — A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3
The mahanavami dibba is the great platform of the Mahanavami festival; the Lotus Mahal was named by nineteenth-century British travellers and its use is unknown; the Hazara Rama temple was probably reserved for the royal family and carries Ramayana panels; the Vitthala temple honours a form of Vishnu from Maharashtra. Swapping the two temples is the usual slip.
Assertion (A): The fortifications of Vijayanagara enclosed agricultural tracts and forests as well as the city. Reason (R): Medieval sieges aimed to starve defenders into submission, so fields within the walls protected the food supply.
1. Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A
2. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A
3. A is true, but R is false
4. A is false, but R is true
Show answer
Answer: A — Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A
Abdur Razzaq described seven lines of forts that took in fields and forests, and the book explains this by the logic of medieval siege warfare: an army besieging a city tried to starve it, so a fortified food supply was a defence in itself. R is the reason for A. Choosing "R is not the correct explanation" misses that the design follows directly from that threat.
Royal orders of the Vijayanagara rulers were signed "Shri Virupaksha". This reflects the claim that the rulers:
1. Ruled on behalf of the god Virupaksha, the guardian deity of the kingdom
2. Were descended from a sage named Virupaksha
3. Had converted to Vaishnavism under Krishnadeva Raya
4. Shared power with the priests of the Virupaksha temple
Show answer
Answer: A — Ruled on behalf of the god Virupaksha, the guardian deity of the kingdom
Virupaksha, a form of Shiva, was the guardian deity of the kingdom, and the rulers presented themselves as governing on his behalf — a claim to divine sanction that the signature made visible on every order. The idea that priests shared power reads too much into it: the god was invoked, not the temple's staff.
Krishnadeva Raya, who ruled from 1509 to 1529, belonged to which dynasty, and what work on statecraft is he credited with?
1. Sangama; the Rajatarangini in Sanskrit
2. Aravidu; the Ain-i Akbari in Persian
3. Saluva; the Arthashastra in Sanskrit
4. Tuluva; the Amuktamalyada in Telugu
Show answer
Answer: D — Tuluva; the Amuktamalyada in Telugu
Krishnadeva Raya was of the Tuluva dynasty and is credited with the Amuktamalyada, a Telugu work on statecraft. The other works are real but belong elsewhere — the Arthashastra to the Mauryan period, the Ain-i Akbari to Akbar's court, the Rajatarangini to Kashmir — and the dynasties attached to them are also wrong.